Games Studies Exercise 2: From Non-Digital to Digital - The Eternal Symphony of Gaming’s Evolution and Remediation

 

From Ancient to Modern: The Evolution of Gaming Culture and Technology

1. Ancient Tabletop Games (Pre-1970s)

Early Tabletop Games

Senet (circa 3100 BCE)

An ancient painting from Nefertari's tomb, depicting Nefertari playing Senet.

• Origin: One of ancient Egypt’s oldest games, found in pharaohs’ tombs like Tutankhamun’s, with exquisitely crafted boards.
• Cultural Significance: Beyond entertainment, Senet symbolized the interplay of life and death, often depicted in tomb murals, reflecting Egyptian beliefs in fate and divine will.
• Impact: As an early “track-based” game, Senet inspired later designs like Backgammon.

Go (circa 2000 BCE)

• Origin: Originating in China, traditionally linked to Emperor Yao, with records from the Spring and Autumn period (5th century BCE).
• Cultural Significance: More than a game, Go embodies Taoist yin-yang philosophy, used in military training and intellectual cultivation. Confucius critiqued it as distracting yet acknowledged its strategic value.
• Impact: A cornerstone of East Asian culture, Go remains a pinnacle of strategy games, profoundly influencing game theory and AI research (e.g., AlphaGo).

Chess (6th Century)

• Origin: Evolved from India’s Chaturanga, spreading via Persia (Shatranj) to the Arab world, reaching Europe by the 10th century, and modernizing by the 15th century.
• Impact: Its abstract strategy and standardized rules made it a global phenomenon, shaping modern strategy game design and AI research.

Wargames (18th–19th Century)

• Origin: Developed by Prussian military strategists for battle simulation, formalized by Georg von Reisswitz’s Kriegsspiel in 1812.
• Impact: Wargames’ simulation mechanics directly influenced Dungeons & Dragons’ combat systems and modern strategy games like Total War.

Dungeons & Dragons (D&D, 1974)
In 1974, Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson launched D&D, introducing role-playing game (RPG) mechanics. Players immersed themselves in fantasy adventures using dice, rulebooks, and narrative. D&D’s open-ended storytelling and character progression pioneered electronic RPGs, becoming a cornerstone of gaming culture.

Dungeons & Dragons

2. The Birth of Video Games (1940s–1970s)

Technological and Cultural Context

• Technological Landscape: From the 1940s to 1970s, computers evolved from military vacuum tubes (e.g., ENIAC) to transistors and early integrated circuits, with cathode ray tubes (CRTs) enabling interactive visuals.
• Cultural Demand: Post-World War II economic prosperity in the West spurred entertainment demand. Sci-fi culture (e.g., 2001: A Space Odyssey) fueled technological imagination, birthing video games as a new interactive medium.
• Early Experiments: The 1947 “Cathode Ray Tube Amusement Device” and 1958’s Tennis for Two marked video gaming’s infancy.
• Arcade Era: In the 1970s, transistors and affordable TVs lowered hardware costs, transitioning games from labs to commercial markets, with arcades and home consoles gaining prominence.

Key Milestones

Pong (1972)

• Background: Atari’s Nolan Bushnell and engineer Al Alcorn, inspired by Tennis for Two and Magnavox Odyssey, created Pong.
• Commercial Success: A global arcade hit, selling tens of thousands of units, with its first test machine famously crashing due to excessive coin deposits.
• Impact: Pong sparked the arcade boom and catalyzed the home console market.

Space Invaders (1978)

Space Invaders

• Background: Developed by Japan’s Taito, players controlled a spaceship shooting descending aliens, introducing “high score” and escalating difficulty mechanics.
• Impact: A global arcade phenomenon, it pushed game design toward dynamic challenges.

Atari 2600 (1977)

• Background: The first widely successful home console, leveraging swappable ROM cartridges and hits like Space Invaders, sold 30 million units, capturing 80% of the North American market by 1982.
• Activision’s Role: Founded in 1979 by former Atari employees, Activision’s Pitfall! (1982) showcased third-party potential, challenging Atari’s closed ecosystem.

3. Home Consoles and the Rise of RPGs (1980s)

The Atari Crash (1982–1983)

• Causes:
  • Quality Control Failure: Atari’s lack of oversight led to a flood of poor-quality third-party games.
  • Notorious Case: E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), rushed in six weeks, was critically panned, selling only 1.5 million of an expected 5 million units, with unsold stock buried in a New Mexico desert.
• Consequences: The North American market plummeted from $3.2 billion (1982) to $100 million (1983). Atari lost $536 million and was sold off in 1984. Many firms went bankrupt, but third-party developers like Activision pivoted to PC gaming, indirectly boosting the PC industry.

Nintendo’s Revival

Nintendo Entertainment System (NES/Famicom, 1983 Japan, 1985 North America)

The Legend of Zelda（1986）

• Background: Nintendo’s Famicom, optimized with input from Satoru Iwata, used strict “Nintendo Seal of Quality” certification to restore market trust.
• Miyamoto’s Revolution: Shigeru Miyamoto’s Super Mario Bros. (1985) and The Legend of Zelda (1986) defined platformers and action-adventure genres, with his “gameplay-first” philosophy shaping the industry.
• Market Dominance: The NES sold over 61 million units, commanding 90% of the North American market, revitalizing the industry.

The Digitalization of RPGs

• D&D’s Legacy: D&D’s role-playing, attribute systems, and turn-based combat inspired 1980s CRPGs and JRPGs.
• CRPGs: Ultima (1981) and Wizardry (1981) adopted D&D rules, enabling team management and 3D dungeon exploration on PCs.
• JRPGs’ Emergence:
  • Dragon Quest (1986, NES)*: Yuji Horii simplified D&D mechanics, blending anime aesthetics with linear narratives and turn-based combat, selling over 2 million in Japan.
  • Final Fantasy (1987, NES)*: Hironobu Sakaguchi introduced job systems and deep storytelling, selling over 500,000 globally.
  • Impact: JRPGs popularized RPGs via the NES, attracting non-tabletop players and paving the way for deeper RPGs like Baldur’s Gate (1998).
• Baldur’s Gate’s Roots: 1980s CRPGs like Pool of Radiance (1988) experimented with real-time combat and complex narratives, laying technical foundations for BioWare’s Baldur’s Gate.
• Sid Meier and John Carmack:
  • Meier’s Civilization (1991) drew from CRPG resource management, integrating 4X strategy.
  • Carmack, inspired by CRPG 3D dungeons, developed Doom (1993), establishing FPS foundations.

4. 3D Technology and Narrative Breakthroughs (1990s)

The 3D Revolution in Consoles

Sony PlayStation (1994)

The original PlayStation

• Background: After a failed collaboration with Nintendo, Sony launched the PlayStation with a 32-bit CPU and 3D graphics chip, priced at $299, undercutting Sega’s Saturn.
• Key Titles:
  • Final Fantasy VII (1997)*: Blending 3D environments and full-motion video (FMV), its profound narrative sold 9.7 million units, cementing JRPGs’ global appeal.
  • Metal Gear Solid (1998)*: Hideo Kojima fused stealth and cinematic storytelling, with 3D perspectives enhancing immersion, selling over 6 million.
  • Resident Evil (1996)*: Pioneering survival horror, its fixed cameras and 3D environments created dread, selling over 5 million.

Nintendo 64 (1996)

• Background: Supported by Satoru Iwata (then at HAL Laboratory), the N64 used a 64-bit CPU but retained cartridges.
• Key Titles:
• Super Mario 64 (1996)*: Miyamoto pioneered 3D platformers with free cameras and open levels, selling over 11 million and setting industry standards.
• The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (1998)*: A 3D action-adventure masterpiece with targeting and time mechanics, earning a near-perfect 99/100 on Metacritic.

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

PC and Technical Pioneers

• John Carmack:
  • Doom (1993)*: The Doom engine enabled pseudo-3D, delivering fast-paced FPS action, selling over 2 million.
  • Quake (1996)*: The Quake engine achieved true 3D polygonal rendering and multiplayer support, shaping modern FPS and powering titles like Half-Life.
• 3dfx Voodoo (1996): The first consumer 3D graphics card, supporting OpenGL, boosted PC rendering for games like Tomb Raider.

CRPGs and Narrative Innovation

• Baldur’s Gate (1998)*: BioWare’s D&D-based title brought tabletop RPG depth and strategic combat to video games, becoming a CRPG benchmark.
• Hideo Kojima: Metal Gear Solid (1998) pioneered stealth gaming, blending cinematic storytelling with player choice, leaving a lasting impact.

KOJIMA PRODUCTIONS Co., Ltd.

Warcraft and the Origins of MOBAs

• Origins: In 1998, StarCraft’s “Aeon of Strife” map introduced hero progression and lane-based combat, laying MOBA groundwork.
• Warcraft III (2002)*: Its map editor birthed Defense of the Ancients (DotA, 2003), a 5v5 competitive mode inspiring League of Legends (2009) and Dota 2 (2013).
• Impact: By 2024, League of Legends boasts over 150 million monthly active players, with the esports market exceeding $1 billion.

5. Art and Immersive Experiences (2000s)

The Rise of Artistic Games

Fumito Ueda’s Philosophy

• ICO (2001) and Shadow of the Colossus (2005) redefined games as art through minimalist narratives and emotional resonance, inspiring Journey (2012) and Dark Souls (2011).
• Ueda’s “subtractive design” eliminated redundant mechanics, prioritizing immersion and laying the foundation for artistic games.

Concept art for Ico（PS2）

Satoru Iwata’s Democratization

• As Nintendo’s president, Iwata drove the success of the Wii (2006) and DS (2004), using motion and touch controls to attract non-traditional players. He also coded for titles like EarthBound.

Activision Blizzard’s Empire

• Formed in 2008, Activision Blizzard dominated MMORPGs and FPS with World of Warcraft (2004) and Call of Duty. Microtransactions reshaped the industry but sparked controversy.

Immersive Experience Breakthroughs

Open Worlds

• Grand Theft Auto III (2001)*: A 3D open-world pioneer, with dynamic weather and NPC interactions, sold over 14 million, influencing The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.
• The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind (2002)*: Integrating D&D-style freedom into 3D, it sold ~4 million, shaping modern open-world RPGs.

The Legend of Zelda

Cinematic Narratives

• Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001)*: Kojima leveraged PS2 power to explore information control and freedom, with lengthy FMVs blurring game-film boundaries, selling over 7 million.
• Uncharted: Drake’s Fortune (2007)*: Neil Druckmann’s cinematic action-adventure sold over 4 million, paving the way for The Last of Us (2013).

Multiplayer and Social

• World of Warcraft (2004)*: Built on D&D’s team adventures, players in Azeroth peaked at 12 million subscribers (2008), redefining online immersion.
• Counter-Strike (2000)*: Using the Quake engine, its team-based competition sold over 10 million, laying esports foundations.

6. The Diversification of Modern Gaming (2010s–Present)

Narrative and High-Difficulty Revolutions

Hidetaka Miyazaki’s “Souls” Legacy

• Dark Souls (2011) and Elden Ring (2022) defined the “Souls” genre with high difficulty and open exploration.
• Elden Ring: Collaborating with George R.R. Martin, Miyazaki’s D&D-inspired open-world RPG with cryptic storytelling sold over 25 million, winning 2022’s Game of the Year and redefining RPGs.

ELDEN RING DLC SHADOW OF THE ERDTREE

Neil Druckmann’s Narrative Peak

• The Last of Us (2013) and The Last of Us Part II (2020) pushed cinematic storytelling, exploring humanity and morality, sparking global discourse.

The Last of Us（PS3）

Baldur’s Gate Revival

• In 2023, Larian Studios’ Baldur’s Gate 3, built on D&D’s 5th Edition rules, revitalized CRPGs with unparalleled freedom and narrative depth, earning universal acclaim.

Hideo Kojima’s Philosophy

• Death Stranding (2019)*: A walking simulator with asynchronous multiplayer, exploring connection and isolation, its cinematic CG and celebrity voice acting created a philosophical experience.

The Artistic Indie Wave

Digital distribution (Steam, Itch.io) and crowdfunding (Kickstarter) empowered indie developers, creating artful experiences on modest budgets.

• Stardew Valley (2016)*: Solo developer Eric Barone blended D&D progression, selling over 30 million.
• Hades (2020)*: Merging Roguelike and Greek mythology with hand-drawn art and dynamic voice acting, it sold over 1 million, winning multiple 2020 awards.
• Journey (2012)*: Inspired by Ueda, its minimalist art and asynchronous multiplayer fostered emotional connections, selling over 2 million.
• Minecraft (2011)*: Markus Persson’s D&D-inspired sandbox sold over 300 million, with 140 million monthly active players, influencing UGC platforms like Roblox.

Journey

VR, AR, and Emerging Tech

• Half-Life: Alyx (2020)*: A VR FPS with immersive interactions, sold over 2 million, proving VR’s potential.
• Pokémon Go (2016)*: An AR game generating over $6 billion globally, engaging non-traditional players.

Esports and MOBA Dominance

• MOBAs: DotA-inspired League of Legends (150 million monthly players) and Dota 2 (esports prizes exceeding $40 million) dominate globally.
• Battle Royale:
• PUBG (2017)*: Pioneered battle royale, selling over 75 million, thriving in Asia.
• Fortnite (2017)*: With over 350 million players by 2020, its Marvel and Travis Scott collaborations amplified cultural impact.

Fortnite

7. Gaming’s Cultural and Social Impact

Global Cultural Fusion

• Cross-Cultural Spread: Sony’s PlayStation globalized The Last of Us and Elden Ring, blending Japanese anime aesthetics (Genshin Impact) with Western narratives (Baldur’s Gate 3).
• Minecraft: Its modding culture fosters global exchange, echoing D&D’s cross-cultural adventures.

Pop Culture

• Fortnite: Collaborations with Marvel and Travis Scott, and dances like “Floss,” went viral on TikTok.
• League of Legends: Its K/DA virtual band topped Billboard charts, merging esports and music.
• PUBG: Fueled battle royale culture in Asia, with mobile versions integrating local elements.

China’s Rising Influence

• Key Titles: Tencent’s Honor of Kings (over 100 million monthly players) and miHoYo’s Genshin Impact export Chinese culture.
• Black Myth: Wukong (2024)*: A global sensation, praised by state media for “breaking Western AAA language monopolies,” with 1.7 billion Weibo topic views.

Streaming and Esports

• Twitch, Bilibili: In 2024, esports viewership exceeds 600 million, with streamers like Ninja earning millions annually, amplifying League of Legends and Fortnite’s reach.
• Industry Scale: The 2024 gaming market surpasses $200 billion, evolving from D&D’s niche to a global cultural force.

Twitch

From Non-Digital to Digital: The Eternal Symphony of Gaming’s Evolution and Remediation

    From Senet’s boards etching fate in ancient Egypt, Go’s monochrome stones weaving Taoist philosophy, to Dungeons & Dragons’ dice rolling epic fantasies, non-digital games wove humanity’s dreams of strategy, narrative, and connection through physical media. The digital dawn remediated these traditions, transforming board grids into boundless virtual realms and oral tales into algorithm-driven immersive universes. From the Atari 2600’s pixel sparks to Minecraft’s infinite creativity, from Baldur’s Gate 3’s freeform choices to Elden Ring’s solitary epics, digital games not only inherited the essence of their non-digital forebears but ignited humanity’s imagination with 3D rendering, VR interaction, and global networks.

    Remediation is an alchemical bridge across media, transmuting tabletop’s tactile intimacy into the luminous pulse of screens, elevating players’ whispers into global epics. League of Legends’ esports spectacles echo wargames’ strategic duels, Fortnite’s virtual stages revive D&D’s communal revelry, and Black Myth: Wukong reimagines Eastern myths through digital artistry, embodying cultural fusion. In 2024, the gaming industry exceeds $200 billion, with over 600 million esports and streaming viewers, cementing digital games as a sanctuary uniting past and present, East and West.

    From non-digital to digital, gaming’s evolution is not merely a technological saga but an eternal symphony of human spirit. It embarks from ancient boards, voyages through digital galaxies, and arrives at cloud-borne horizons, inscribing every player’s adventure and creation into time’s enduring scroll. Games transcend entertainment; they are our dialogue with history, our co-creation with the future, and the infinite extension of human intellect and dreams.

Portal

References

• Caillois, R. (2001). Man, Play and Games. University of Illinois Press.
• Donovan, T. (2010). Replay: The History of Video Games. Yellow Ant.
• Kent, S. L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games. Three Rivers Press.
• Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The Future of Narrative in Cyberspace. MIT Press.
• Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2003). Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals. MIT Press.